In electronics, an integrated circuit - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 16 Words: 4687 Downloads: 3 Date added: 2017/09/20 Category Advertising Essay Type Argumentative essay Level High school Tags: Development Essay Did you like this example? In electronics, an integrated circuit (also known as IC, microcircuit, microchip, silicon chip, or chip) is a miniaturized electronic circuit (consisting mainly of semiconductor devices, as well as passive components) that has been manufactured in the surface of a thin substrate of semiconductor material. Integrated circuits are used in almost all electronic equipment in use today and have revolutionized the world of electronics. A hybrid integrated circuit is a miniaturized electronic circuit constructed of individual semiconductor devices, as well as passive components, bonded to a substrate or circuit board. Contents | |[hide] | |1 Introduction | |2 Invention | |3 Generations | |3. 1 SSI, MSI and LSI | |3. 2 VLSI | |3. ULSI, WSI, SOC and 3D-IC | |4 Advances in integrated circuits | |5 Popularity of ICs | |6 Classification | |7 Manufacturing | |7. 1 Fabrication | |7. 2 Packaging | |7. Chip labeling and manufacture date | |8 Legal protection of semiconductor chip layouts | | 9 Other developments | |10 Silicon labelling and graffiti | |11 Key industrial and academic data | |11. 1 Notable ICs | |11. 2 Manufacturers | |11. VLSI conferences | |11. 4 VLSI journals | |12 See also | |13 References | |14 Further reading | |15 External links | Introduction [pic] [pic] Synthetic detail of an integrated circuit through four layers of planarized copper interconnect, down to the polysilicon (pink), wells (greyish), and substrate (green). Integrated circuits were made possible by experimental discoveries which showed that semiconductor devices could perform the functions of vacuum tubes and by mid-20th-century technology advancements in semiconductor device fabrication. The integration of large numbers of tiny transistors into a small chip was an enormous improvement over the manual assembly of circuits using electronic components. The integrated circuits mass production capability, reliability, and building-block approach to circuit design ensured the rapid adopt ion of standardized ICs in place of designs using discrete transistors. There are two main advantages of ICs over discrete circuits: cost and performance. Cost is low because the chips, with all their components, are printed as a unit by photolithography and not constructed as one transistor at a time. Furthermore, much less material is used to construct a circuit as a packaged IC die than as a discrete circuit. Performance is high since the components switch quickly and consume little power (compared to their discrete counterparts) because the components are small and close together. As of 2006, chip areas range from a few square millimeters to around 350  mm2, with up to 1 million transistors per mm2. [edit] Invention [pic] [pic] Jack Kilbys original integrated circuit The idea of the integrated circuit was conceived by a radar scientist working for the Royal Radar Establishment of the British Ministry of Defence, Geoffrey W. A. Dummer (1909–2002), who published it at the Symposium on Progress in Quality Electronic Components in Washington, D. C. on May 7, 1952. [1] He gave many symposia publicly to propagate his ideas. Dummer unsuccessfully attempted to build such a circuit in 1956. Jack Kilby recorded his initial ideas concerning the integrated circuit in July 1958 and successfully demonstrated the first working integrated circuit on September 12, 1958. [2] In his patent application of February 6, 1959, Kilby described his new device as â€Å"a body of semiconductor material wherein all the components of the electronic circuit are completely integrated. † [3] Kilby won the 2000 Nobel Prize in Physics for his part of the invention of the integrated circuit. [4] Robert Noyce also came up with his own idea of an integrated circuit half a year later than Kilby. Noyces chip solved many practical problems that Kilbys had not. Noyces chip, made at Fairchild Semiconductor, was made of silicon, whereas Kilbys chip was made of germanium. Early developments of the integrated circuit go back to 1949, when the German engineer Werner Jacobi (Siemens AG) filed a patent for an integrated-circuit-like semiconductor amplifying device [5] showing five transistors on a common substrate arranged in a 2-stage amplifier arrangement. Jacobi discloses small and cheap hearing aids as typical industrial applications of his patent. A commercial use of his patent has not been reported. A precursor idea to the IC was to create small ceramic squares (wafers), each one containing a single miniaturized component. Components could then be integrated and wired into a bidimensional or tridimensional compact grid. This idea, which looked very promising in 1957, was proposed to the US Army by Jack Kilby, and led to the short-lived Micromodule Program (similar to 1951s Project Tinkertoy). [6] However, as the project was gaining momentum, Kilby came up with a new, revolutionary design: the IC. Robert Noyce credited Kurt Lehovec of Sprague Electric for the principle of p-n junction isolation caused by the action of a biased p-n junction (the diode) as a key concept behind the IC. [7] See: Other variations of vacuum tubes for precursor concepts such as the Loewe 3NF. enerations [edit] SSI, MSI and LSI The first integrated circuits contained only a few transistors. Called Small-Scale Integration (SSI), digital circuits containing transistors numbering in the tens provided a few logic gates for example, while early linear ICs such as the Plessey SL201 or the Philips TAA320 had as few as two transistors. The term Large Scale Integration was first used by IBM scientist Rolf Landauer when describing the theoretical concept, from there came the terms for SSI, MSI, VLSI, and ULSI. SSI circuits were crucial to early aerospace projects, and vice-versa. Both the Minuteman missile and Apollo program needed lightweight digital computers for their inertial guidance systems; the Apollo guidance computer led and motivated the int egrated-circuit technology[citation needed], while the Minuteman missile forced it into mass-production. These programs purchased almost all of the available integrated circuits from 1960 through 1963, and almost alone provided the demand that funded the production improvements to reduce production costs from $1000/circuit (in 1960 dollars) to merely $25/circuit (in 1963 dollars). [citation needed] They began to appear in consumer products at the turn of the decade, a typical application being FM inter-carrier sound processing in television receivers. The next step in the development of integrated circuits, taken in the late 1960s, introduced devices which contained hundreds of transistors on each chip, called Medium-Scale Integration (MSI). They were attractive economically because while they cost little more to produce than SSI devices, they allowed more complex systems to be produced using smaller circuit boards, less assembly work (because of fewer separate components), an d a number of other advantages. Further development, driven by the same economic factors, led to Large-Scale Integration (LSI) in the mid 1970s, with tens of thousands of transistors per chip. Integrated circuits such as 1K-bit RAMs, calculator chips, and the first microprocessors, that began to be manufactured in moderate quantities in the early 1970s, had under 4000 transistors. True LSI circuits, approaching 10000 transistors, began to be produced around 1974, for computer main memories and second-generation microprocessors. [edit] VLSI Main article: Very-large-scale integration [pic] [pic] Upper interconnect layers on an Intel 80486DX2 microprocessor die. The final step in the development process, starting in the 1980s and continuing through the present, was very large-scale integration (VLSI). The development started with hundreds of thousands of transistors in the early 1980s, and continues beyond several billion transistors as of 2009. There was no single breakthrough t hat allowed this increase in complexity, though many factors helped. Manufacturers moved to smaller rules and cleaner fabs, so that they could make chips with more transistors and maintain adequate yield. The path of process improvements was summarized by the International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors (ITRS). Design tools improved enough to make it practical to finish these designs in a reasonable time. The more energy efficient CMOS replaced NMOS and PMOS, avoiding a prohibitive increase in power consumption. Better texts such as the landmark textbook by Mead and Conway helped schools educate more designers, among other factors. In 1986 the first one megabit RAM chips were introduced, which contained more than one million transistors. Microprocessor chips passed the million transistor mark in 1989 and the billion transistor mark in 2005[8]. The trend continues largely unabated, with chips introduced in 2007 containing tens of billions of memory transistors [9]. [edit] U LSI, WSI, SOC and 3D-IC ULSI, WSI, SOC and 3D-IC To reflect further growth of the complexity, the term ULSI that stands for ultra-large-scale integration was proposed for chips of complexity of more than 1 million transistors. Wafer-scale integration (WSI) is a system of building very-large integrated circuits that uses an entire silicon wafer to produce a single super-chip. Through a combination of large size and reduced packaging, WSI could lead to dramatically reduced costs for some systems, notably massively parallel supercomputers. The name is taken from the term Very-Large-Scale Integration, the current state of the art when WSI was being developed. A system-on-a-chip (SoC or SOC) is an integrated circuit in which all the components needed for a computer or other system are included on a single chip. The design of such a device can be complex and costly, and building disparate components on a single piece of silicon may compromise the efficiency of some elements. However , these drawbacks are offset by lower manufacturing and assembly costs and by a greatly reduced power budget: because signals among the components are kept on-die, much less power is required (see Packaging). A three-dimensional integrated circuit (3D-IC) has two or more layers of active electronic components that are integrated both vertically and horizontally into a single circuit. Communication between layers uses on-die signaling, so power consumption is much lower than in equivalent separate circuits. Judicious use of short vertical wires can substantially reduce overall wire length for faster operation Advances in integrated circuits [pic] [pic] The die from an Intel 8742, an 8-bit microcontroller that includes a CPU running at 12 MHz, 128 bytes of RAM, 2048 bytes of EPROM, and I/O in the same chip. Among the most advanced integrated circuits are the microprocessors or cores, which control everything from computers to cellular phones to digital microwave ovens. Digital m emory chips and ASICs are examples of other families of integrated circuits that are important to the modern information society. While the cost of designing and developing a complex integrated circuit is quite high, when spread across typically millions of production units the individual IC cost is minimized. The performance of ICs is high because the small size allows short traces which in turn allows low power logic (such as CMOS) to be used at fast switching speeds. ICs have consistently migrated to smaller feature sizes over the years, allowing more circuitry to be packed on each chip. This increased capacity per unit area can be used to decrease cost and/or increase functionality—see Moores law which, in its modern interpretation, states that the number of transistors in an integrated circuit doubles every two years. In general, as the feature size shrinks, almost everything improves—the cost per unit and the switching power consumption go down, and the speed goes up. However, ICs with nanometer-scale devices are not without their problems, principal among which is leakage current (see subthreshold leakage for a discussion of this), although these problems are not insurmountable and will likely be solved or at least ameliorated by the introduction of high-k dielectrics. Since these speed and power consumption gains are apparent to the end user, there is fierce competition among the manufacturers to use finer geometries. This process, and the expected progress over the next few years, is well described by the International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors (ITRS). edit] Popularity of ICs Only a half century after their development was initiated, integrated circuits have become ubiquitous. Computers, cellular phones, and other digital appliances are now inextricable parts of the structure of modern societies. That is, modern computing, communications, manufacturing and transport systems, including the Internet, all depend on the exi stence of integrated circuits. Classification [pic] [pic] A CMOS 4000 IC in a DIP Integrated circuits can be classified into analog, digital and mixed signal (both analog and digital on the same chip). Digital integrated circuits can contain anything from one to millions of logic gates, flip-flops, multiplexers, and other circuits in a few square millimeters. The small size of these circuits allows high speed, low power dissipation, and reduced manufacturing cost compared with board-level integration. These digital ICs, typically microprocessors, DSPs, and micro controllers work using binary mathematics to process one and zero signals. Analog ICs, such as sensors, power management circuits, and operational amplifiers, work by processing continuous signals. They perform functions like amplification, active filtering, demodulation, mixing, etc. Analog ICs ease the burden on circuit designers by having expertly designed analog circuits available instead of designing a difficult a nalog circuit from scratch. ICs can also combine analog and digital circuits on a single chip to create functions such as A/D converters and D/A converters. Such circuits offer smaller size and lower cost, but must carefully account for signal interference. Manufacturing [edit] Fabrication Main article: Semiconductor fabrication [pic] [pic] Rendering of a small standard cell with three metal layers (dielectric has been removed). The sand-colored structures are metal interconnect, with the vertical pillars being contacts, typically plugs of tungsten. The reddish structures are polysilicon gates, and the solid at the bottom is the crystalline silicon bulk. [pic] [pic] Schematic structure of a CMOS chip, as built in the early 2000s. The graphic shows LDD-MISFETs on an SOI substrate with five metallization layers and solder bump for flip-chip bonding. It also shows the section for FEOL (front-end of line), BEOL (back-end of line) and first parts of back-end process. The semiconduc tors of the periodic table of the chemical elements were identified as the most likely materials for a solid state vacuum tube by researchers like William Shockley at Bell Laboratories starting in the 1930s. Starting with copper oxide, proceeding to germanium, then silicon, the materials were systematically studied in the 1940s and 1950s. Today, silicon monocrystals are the main substrate used for integrated circuits (ICs) although some III-V compounds of the periodic table such as gallium arsenide are used for specialized applications like LEDs, lasers, solar cells and the highest-speed integrated circuits. It took decades to perfect methods of creating crystals without defects in the crystalline structure of the semiconducting material. Semiconductor ICs are fabricated in a layer process which includes these key process steps: †¢ Imaging †¢ Deposition †¢ Etching The main process steps are supplemented by doping and cleaning. Mono-crystal silicon wafers (or for sp ecial applications, silicon on sapphire or gallium arsenide wafers) are used as the substrate. Photolithography is used to mark different areas of the substrate to be doped or to have polysilicon, insulators or metal (typically aluminium) tracks deposited on them. Integrated circuits are composed of many overlapping layers, each defined by photolithography, and normally shown in different colors. Some layers mark where various dopants are diffused into the substrate (called diffusion layers), some define where additional ions are implanted (implant layers), some define the conductors (polysilicon or metal layers), and some define the connections between the conducting layers (via or contact layers). All components are constructed from a specific combination of these layers. In a self-aligned CMOS process, a transistor is formed wherever the gate layer (polysilicon or metal) crosses a diffusion layer. †¢ Capacitive structures, in form very much like the parallel conducting plate s of a traditional electrical capacitor, are formed according to the area of the plates, with insulating material between the plates. Capacitors of a wide range of sizes are common on ICs. †¢ Meandering stripes of varying lengths are sometimes used to form on-chip resistors, though most logic circuits do not need any resistors. The ratio of the length of the resistive structure to its width, combined with its sheet resistivity, determines the resistance. †¢ More rarely, inductive structures can be built as tiny on-chip coils, or simulated by gyrators. Since a CMOS device only draws current on the transition between logic states, CMOS devices consume much less current than bipolar devices. A random access memory is the most regular type of integrated circuit; the highest density devices are thus memories; but even a microprocessor will have memory on the chip. (See the regular array structure at the bottom of the first image. Although the structures are intricate  œ with widths which have been shrinking for decades – the layers remain much thinner than the device widths. The layers of material are fabricated much like a photographic process, although light waves in the visible spectrum cannot be used to expose a layer of material, as they would be too large for the features. Thus photons of higher frequencies (typically ultraviolet) are used to create the patterns for each layer. Because each feature is so small, electron microscopes are essential tools for a process engineer who might be debugging a fabrication process. Each device is tested before packaging using automated test equipment (ATE), in a process known as wafer testing, or wafer probing. The wafer is then cut into rectangular blocks, each of which is called a die. Each good die (plural dice, dies, or die) is then connected into a package using aluminium (or gold) bond wires which are welded and/or Thermosonic Bonded to pads, usually found around the edge of the die. Aft er packaging, the devices go through final testing on the same or similar ATE used during wafer probing. Test cost can account for over 25% of the cost of fabrication on lower cost products, but can be negligible on low yielding, larger, and/or higher cost devices. As of 2005, a fabrication facility (commonly known as a semiconductor lab) costs over a billion US Dollars to construct[10], because much of the operation is automated. The most advanced processes employ the following techniques: †¢ The wafers are up to 300  mm in diameter (wider than a common dinner plate). †¢ Use of 65 nanometer or smaller chip manufacturing process. Intel, IBM, NEC, and AMD are using 45 nanometers for their CPU chips. IBM and AMD are in development of a 45  nm process using immersion lithography. †¢ Copper interconnects where copper wiring replaces aluminium for interconnects. †¢ Low-K dielectric insulators. †¢ Silicon on insulator (SOI) †¢ Strained silicon in a process used by IBM known as strained silicon directly on insulator (SSDOI) Packaging Main article: Integrated circuit packaging [pic] [pic] Early USSR made integrated circuit The earliest integrated circuits were packaged in ceramic flat packs, which continued to be used by the military for their reliability and small size for many years. Commercial circuit packaging quickly moved to the dual in-line package (DIP), first in ceramic and later in plastic. In the 1980s pin counts of VLSI circuits exceeded the practical limit for DIP packaging, leading to pin grid array (PGA) and leadless chip carrier (LCC) packages. Surface mount packaging appeared in the early 1980s and became popular in the late 1980s, using finer lead pitch with leads formed as either gull-wing or J-lead, as exemplified by small-outline integrated circuit a carrier which occupies an area about 30 – 50% less than an equivalent DIP, with a typical thickness that is 70% less. This package has gull wing l eads protruding from the two long sides and a lead spacing of 0. 050  inches. In the late 1990s, PQFP and TSOP packages became the most common for high pin count devices, though PGA packages are still often used for high-end microprocessors. Intel and AMD are currently transitioning from PGA packages on high-end microprocessors to land grid array (LGA) packages. Ball grid array (BGA) packages have existed since the 1970s. Flip-chip Ball Grid Array packages, which allow for much higher pin count than other package types, were developed in the 1990s. In an FCBGA package the die is mounted upside-down (flipped) and connects to the package balls via a package substrate that is similar to a printed-circuit board rather than by wires. FCBGA packages allow an array of input-output signals (called Area-I/O) to be distributed over the entire die rather than being confined to the die periphery. Traces out of the die, through the package, and into the printed circuit board have very diffe rent electrical properties, compared to on-chip signals. They require special design techniques and need much more electric power than signals confined to the chip itself. When multiple dies are put in one package, it is called SiP, for System In Package. When multiple dies are combined on a small substrate, often ceramic, its called an MCM, or Multi-Chip Module. The boundary between a big MCM and a small printed circuit board is sometimes fuzzy. [edit] Chip labeling and manufacture date Most integrated circuits large enough to include identifying information include four common sections: the manufacturers name or logo, the part number, a part production batch number and/or serial number, and a four-digit code that identifies when the chip was manufactured. Extremely small surface mount technology parts often bear only a number used in a manufacturers lookup table to find the chip characteristics. The manufacturing date is commonly represented as a two-digit year followed by a two-digit week code, such that a part bearing the code 8341 was manufactured in week 41 of 1983, or approximately in October 1983. Packaging Main article: Integrated circuit packaging [pic] [pic] Early USSR made integrated circuit The earliest integrated circuits were packaged in ceramic flat packs, which continued to be used by the military for their reliability and small size for many years. Commercial circuit packaging quickly moved to the dual in-line package (DIP), first in ceramic and later in plastic. In the 1980s pin counts of VLSI circuits exceeded the practical limit for DIP packaging, leading to pin grid array (PGA) and leadless chip carrier (LCC) packages. Surface mount packaging appeared in the early 1980s and became popular in the late 1980s, using finer lead pitch with leads formed as either gull-wing or J-lead, as exemplified by small-outline integrated circuit a carrier which occupies an area about 30 – 50% less than an equivalent DIP, with a typical thi ckness that is 70% less. This package has gull wing leads protruding from the two long sides and a lead spacing of 0. 050  inches. In the late 1990s, PQFP and TSOP packages became the most common for high pin count devices, though PGA packages are still often used for high-end microprocessors. Intel and AMD are currently transitioning from PGA packages on high-end microprocessors to land grid array (LGA) packages. Ball grid array (BGA) packages have existed since the 1970s. Flip-chip Ball Grid Array packages, which allow for much higher pin count than other package types, were developed in the 1990s. In an FCBGA package the die is mounted upside-down (flipped) and connects to the package balls via a package substrate that is similar to a printed-circuit board rather than by wires. FCBGA packages allow an array of input-output signals (called Area-I/O) to be distributed over the entire die rather than being confined to the die periphery. Traces out of the die, through the pac kage, and into the printed circuit board have very different electrical properties, compared to on-chip signals. They require special design techniques and need much more electric power than signals confined to the chip itself. When multiple dies are put in one package, it is called SiP, for System In Package. When multiple dies are combined on a small substrate, often ceramic, its called an MCM, or Multi-Chip Module. The boundary between a big MCM and a small printed circuit board is sometimes fuzzy. [edit] Chip labeling and manufacture date Most integrated circuits large enough to include identifying information include four common sections: the manufacturers name or logo, the part number, a part production batch number and/or serial number, and a four-digit code that identifies when the chip was manufactured. Extremely small surface mount technology parts often bear only a number used in a manufacturers lookup table to find the chip characteristics. The manufacturing date i s commonly represented as a two-digit year followed by a two-digit week code, such that a part bearing the code 8341 was manufactured in week 41 of 1983, or approximately in October 1983. Legal protection of semiconductor chip layouts Main article: Semiconductor Chip Protection Act of 1984 Prior to 1984, it was not necessarily illegal to produce a competing chip with an identical layout. As the legislative history for the Semiconductor Chip Protection Act of 1984, or SCPA, explained, patent and copyright protection for chip layouts, or topographies, were largely unavailable. This led to considerable complaint by U. S. chip manufacturers—notably, Intel, which took the lead in seeking legislation, along with the Semiconductor Industry Association (SIA)against what they termed chip piracy. A 1984 addition to US law, the SCPA, made all so-called mask works (i. e. , chip topographies) protectable if registered with the U. S. Copyright Office. Similar rules apply in most oth er countries that manufacture ICs. (This is a simplified explanation see SCPA for legal details. ) [edit] Other developments In the 1980s, programmable integrated circuits were developed. These devices contain circuits whose logical function and connectivity can be programmed by the user, rather than being fixed by the integrated circuit manufacturer. This allows a single chip to be programmed to implement different LSI-type functions such as logic gates, adders and registers. Current devices named FPGAs (Field Programmable Gate Arrays) can now implement tens of thousands of LSI circuits in parallel and operate up to 550  MHz. The techniques perfected by the integrated circuits industry over the last three decades have been used to create microscopic machines, known as MEMS. These devices are used in a variety of commercial and military applications. Example commercial applications include DLP projectors, inkjet printers, and accelerometers used to deploy automobile airbags. In the past, radios could not be fabricated in the same low-cost processes as microprocessors. But since 1998, a large number of radio chips have been developed using CMOS processes. Examples include Intels DECT cordless phone, or Atheross 802. 11 card. Future developments seem to follow the multi-core multi-microprocessor paradigm, already used by the Intel and AMD dual-core processors. Intel recently unveiled a prototype, not for commercial sale chip that bears a staggering 80 microprocessors. Each core is capable of handling its own task independently of the others. This is in response to the heat-versus-speed limit that is about to be reached using existing transistor technology. This design provides a new challenge to chip programming. Parallel programming languages such as the open-source X10 programming language are designed to assist with this task. [11] Silicon labelling and graffiti To allow identification during production most silicon chips will have a serial number in one corner. It is also common to add the manufactuers logo. Ever since ICs were created, some chip designers have used the silicon surface area for surreptitious, non-functional images or words. These are sometimes referred to as Chip Art, Silicon Art, Silicon Graffiti or Silicon Doodling. [edit] Key industrial and academic data |[pic] |The lists in this article may contain items that are not notable, encyclopedic, or helpful. Please help out by removing| | |such elements and incorporating appropriate items into the main body of the article. (January 2008) | [edit] Notable ICs †¢ The 555 common multivibrator sub-circuit (common in electronic timing circuits) †¢ The 741 operational amplifier †¢ 7400 series TTL logic building blocks 4000 series, the CMOS counterpart to the 7400 series (see also: 74HC00 series) †¢ Intel 4004, the worlds first microprocessor, which led to the famous 8080 CPU and then the IBM PCs 8088, 80286, 486 etc. †¢ The MOS Technology 6502 and Zilog Z80 microprocessors, used in many home computers of the early 1980s †¢ The Motorola 6800 series of computer-related chips, leading to the 68000 and 88000 series (used in some Apple computers). [edit] Manufacturers For a list of microchip manufacturers, see List of integrated circuit manufacturers. VLSI conferences ICM – IEEE International Conference on Microelectronics †¢ ISSCC – IEEE International Solid-State Circuits Conference †¢ CICC – IEEE Custom Integrated Circuit Conference †¢ ISCAS – IEEE International Symposium on Circuits and Systems †¢ VLSI – IEEE International Conference on VLSI Design †¢ DAC – Design Automation Conference †¢ ICCAD – International Conference on Computer-Aided Design †¢ ESSCIRC – European Solid-State Circuits Conference †¢ ISLPED – International Symposium on Low Power Electronics and Design †¢ ISPD – International Symposi um on Physical Design ISQED – International Symposium on Quality Electronic Design †¢ DATE – Design Automation and Test in Europe †¢ ICCD – International Conference on Computer Design †¢ IEDM – IEEE International Electron Devices Meeting †¢ GLSVLSI – IEEE Great Lakes Symposium on VLSI †¢ ASP-DAC – Asia and South Pacific Design Automation Conference †¢ MWSCAS – IEEE Midwest Symposium on Circuits and Systems †¢ ICSVLSI – IEEE Computer Society Annual Symposium on VLSI †¢ IEEE Symposia on VLSI Circuits and Technology [edit] VLSI journals ED – IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices †¢ EDL – IEEE Electron Device Letters †¢ CAD – IEEE Transactions on Computer-Aided Design of Integrated Circuits and Systems, IEEE web site for this journal †¢ JSSC – IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits †¢ VLSI – IEEE Transactions on Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) Systems †¢ CAS II – IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems II: Analog and Digital Signal Processing †¢ SM – IEEE Transactions on Semiconductor Manufacturing †¢ SSE – Solid-State Electronics Don’t waste time! 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Canterbury Tales Essay Example For Students

Canterbury Tales Essay Throughout history all different parts of the world have been devastated bynatural disasters. Whenever something created by nature destroys a certain areaof the world, people tend to group together and overcome such a tragedy. Ourtale will begin in one of the busiest and diverse places in the world, New YorkCity. The month was September and the day started off a bit chilly for an earlyfall day and the wind was blowing hard. Warnings had been posted for possiblehurricane conditions, and the city had become a frenzy of activity. Some werebusy preparing for a possible devastating hurricane and gathering supplies whileothers were going about their daily routine unaffected by the chaos surroundingthem. As they day progressed the sky became darker and the wind picked upstrength. The possibility of a storm occurring increased by the minutes and soonbecame a citywide warning. By this time most people were able to understand thata violent and unpredictable storm was about to overtake the city , but there werestill some who didnt believe the reports from the weather channel. Soon therain started coming down in sheets and the wind increased to hurricane styleconditions topping over 100 mph. Power was lost quickly and buildings and homeswere being ripped apart from the wind and debris flying about. Parts of the citywere damaged severely from the beginning effects of the hurricane and there werepeople in need of help. The city officials prepared ahead of time and set upshelters for those who needed protection and assistance. I for one decided totake the opportunity and reside in a shelter for the vast majority of thepassing storm. As the storm progressed outside, the shelters quickly filled upwith terrified city-dwellers unable to predict what was occurring outside ofshelter walls. Natural disasters can bring about a caring and sensitive side inpeople, and those seeking comfort and relieve are able to turn to those aroundthem to receive this ease. The shelter I was residing in happened to gather aninteresting and diverse group of people. Myself and 24 others turned to reliedon each other and gathered together in a cluster and began to converse. Maybethey just wanted take their minds off of the hurricane outside, or maybe theywere just bored out of their minds, but whatever our reasons may have been doesnot matter. Because this gathering occurred allows me to tell you this tale Itwas hard to make small talk among such a large group so I came up with adifferent idea. I remember reading a book back when I was in high school where agroup of people told stories to pass their time on a long journey they were alltaking together. I figured that since none of us were going to be leavinganytime soon that we might give it a try. I suggested it to everyone andsurprisingly they all agreed. I explained to them the basic storyline of thebook that I was mimicking and they all felt that it would be interesting to seewho could come up with the most interesting and reali stic story that providedall the basics of humor and romance rolled into one. It was decided that aftereveryone completed his or her tale that we would take a vote to see which talethe majority enjoyed most. The winner would then receive a prize that would bedetermined later. Before I begin the stories, let me give you an introduction toeach one of the people that I was gathered with. I will present you with eachcharacter in the order that they introduced themselves. Ill begin with thelow-budget porn star. He is an out of work actor who had to turn to makingcheesy porn flicks so he could survive and pay his bills. He was just waitingfor his big break to come along so he could make it into real show business andbecome more well known outside of his typical porn circle. He was born andraised as a New Yorker and he has the New York accent to go with it. You cansense his intelligence from his choice of vocabulary and The Prostitute camenext. Now I dont mean to stereotype her at all, beca use she seems like a verynice girl. Her childhood was a rough one, starting from when she was just alittle girl. She grew up taking care of herself since her mother and fatherdecided that their social life came before her well being. Not only did herparents neglect her, her father also abused her. Unable to deal with livingthrough all the pain that was being inflicted on her, she decided to leave. Shewas a runaway at the age of 13 and escaped to the streets of New York City totry and make a living. Even though she had to learn to be an adult on her own atsuch a young age, she was still unable to make it successfully in the city. Herneed for money and lack of skills left very few options for her to pursue. Whiletrying to figure out what to do she met up with an older girl of 18 who had beenthrough the same ordeals and was willing to take her under her wing. This girlhappened to have succumbed to a life of prostitution, so this seemed to be thebest option she had that would provide he r with money. The Hillbilly was next tointroduce himself. He was raised on a small farm in Nebraska with his parents,six brothers, three sisters along with four grandparents, two aunts and twouncles and seven cousins. Being that he lived with such an extended family, hewas never able to receive much privacy and we will just say that his family wasvery close and tight-knit. When he reached the ripe old age of 15, he like manyof his friends turned to their cousins to marry and start a family. He wed hisneighborhood sweetheart, Betty-Sue and the two settled down into her familysattic. After failing at his life-long dream of being a NASCAR pit crew workerafter a freak accident involving a tractor trailer where he severely mangled hishand, he has succumb to a life of farming and raising 8 children. The hackercame next. By day he is a hard working bank teller, but by night he hacks intothe worlds most prestigious computer programs. Along with hacking he has a sidehobby of creating and des igning deadly computer viruses in hopes to one day ruinthe entire world computer system. He is a very secretive and anti-social type ofman. He has never had real friends, just random acquaintances from work orschool. His type of work requires total secrecy so he does not get caughttherefore he trusts no one. The Millionaire was a unique individual, and spokenext. He had the privilege of being born into money and he carried on thetradition and took over daddys corporate office and continued to make his ownmillions. At home in one of his several mansions he has a wife and two childrenwhom he hardly knows. Because of his lack of contribution towards his familylife his children dont know him and he and his wife have a non-existentmarriage. The Welfare Queen was next to speak. Her family consists of 6 children(all have different fathers) with one on the way. She was never taught how totake care of herself and is unable to understand the concept of hard work. Theonly way she knows how to survive is by constantly bearing children so she canreceive a larger welfare check each month. Currently she rents a 2-bedroom shackand shares it with her out-of-work boyfriend. She currently has 11 children andjust keeps popping them out in order to get her check every month. Next is theConceited Athletic Hero. Hes the type of guy who is too good to signautographs for small children who marvel at him and would rather pretend thatthey didnt exist. His father instilled in him that sports and winning wereeverything and that if you didnt bring him a trophy you would be ostracizedfrom the family. He doesnt love or even enjoy the sport he is playing; ratherhe just does it to get the paycheck each week. He has the garage full ofexpensive cars, the beautiful wife (whom he cheats on) and a plethora ofgorgeous houses. Since his life was empty and he had very little to life for, hechose to turn to drugs and alcohol to drain his sorrows. The Beauty Queen camenext. She was like many other self- centered beauty queens, whose life consistedof being obsessed with winning beauty contests. The first contest she enteredwhen she was two was the Beautiful Baby Contest, and she won. From then on herstage-mother continued training her since a baby. She instilled upon her thevalues and standards that winning is everything and that losing was just notacceptable. She has never been able to stand up to her mom and always dreamt ofthe day when she can escape from her grasps. Her dream was to run away toHollywood and become a famous actress and marry an actor. The day finally camebut instead of going out to Hollywood she came to New York City. She defiantlydid not give off the impression of being intelligent, more the dumb blonde type. The mind body distinction is a myth derived from philosophers such as Plato EssayDont worry. Im in the basement. They dont even know Im here.Joel was calm now and had time to think. OK, but keep it that way.The boss said reluctantly. We need the kid. No witness, no trial, you knowthe story. Look, Joel. Get some sleep and Ill come down tomorrow inperson. Sunlight shone through the vents along the east wall as Joel woketo answer the door. He was still dressed, but had been sleeping and was notfully alert. He opened the door and yawned. Before he had even closed his mouth,the assassin shot the silenced pistol, putting a large hole through Joels head. The assassin then stepped over the body and made his way to Adam, who wassleeping on the couch. He pulled a piece of nylon rope from his pocket andcompleted his mission. He then left the basement room as quietly as he hadarrived. No witness, no trial. Writing this paper allowed me to reach into mycreative side a produce a paper that I was to create a group of characters thatto me represented the American culture. Some of my characters I tended to baseon famous people, like the Barbara Walters news reporter. I felt that byincluding real people in my story I would be depicting a more realistic type ofcharacter that could be related to better because there would be something tocompare them to. Other characters were based on people that I have known, but Ichose not to tell their whole life story. Instead I chose a few differentmoments from throughout the years that I have had in contact with them, andcreated a character based on their life during a certain time period. Take forinstance t he Hard Working Mother, that character is based on my own mother, butfrom ten years ago. During that time she had to work two jobs in order tosupport my brother and myself while trying to keep up with payments on thehouse. The rest of my characters were based on just general characteristics ofpeople that I may have seen in a movie or on TV or from the news. Each characterthat I put into this tale was meant to represent an average group of people, andall 25 characters together were hopefully meant to symbolize all the Americanpeople in general. Everyone is not meant to be able to relate to the entirepersonality of a character or just one character, you should be able to sharethe same traits with bits and pieces of a few characters. Hopefully those whoread this will be able to associate with some of my characters and connectdifferent aspects of their life and views with the ones I have created. Thereason I chose to tell a story from the point of view of the Hacker is because Ifelt tha t his lack of trust in people would be the easiest for me to tell astory about. He was the perfect character to have the lack of confidence inother because of his lifestyle and chosen hobby. The story I told I hope gaveoff the impression that there is a good reason behind not trusting people andrelying on them to keep your best interest at heart. The Hacker being anintelligent man and his ability to hack into certain websites like the FBI andCIA may have come across this in the form of a case. Maybe he just conjured thestory out of his head so that he could show the entire group his reasons for nottrusting friends or family or colleagues. Wherever he got the idea for the storyfrom the reasoning behind it was still the same. Although I tried to parallel mytale and the Canterbury Tales closely, it was hard to follow exactly. It wasdifficult to try and give backgrounds for 25 completely various people,personality traits, views, and past experiences. It was also tricky to try anddecide which information you should provide the reader and how that particularcharacter would react to it. All in all I hope that my creations of 25characters did for the most part describe American life, as it is known today inthe Twenty First Century. In time these people will change and a new CanterburyTales will have to be written in order to conform to that particular generation. Canterbury Tales Essay Example For Students Canterbury Tales Essay Throughout literature, relationships can often be found between the author of astory and the story that he writes. In Geoffrey Chaucers frame story,Canterbury Tales, many of the characters make this idea evident with the talesthat they tell. A distinct relationship can be made between the character of thePardoner and the tale that he tells. Through the Prologue to the Pardonerstale, the character of the Pardoner is revealed. Although the Pardoner displaysmany important traits, the most prevalent is his greed. Throughout the prologue,the Pardoner displays his greed and even admits that the only thing he caresabout is money: I preach nothing except for gain (PardonersTale, Line 105). This avarice is seen strongly in the Pardoners tale aswell. In the Pardoners tale, three friends begin a journey in order to murderDeath. On their journey, though, an old man leads them to a great deal oftreasure. At this point, all three of the friends in the tale display a greedsimilar to the Pardoners. The three friends decide that someone should bringbread and wine for a celebration. As the youngest of the friends leaves to gobuy wine, the other two greedily plot to kill him so they can split the treasureonly two ways. Even the youngest decides to put it in his mind to buypoison / With which he might kill his two companions (383, 384). Thegreed, which is evident in the character of the Pardoner, is also clearly seenin the tale. Another trait that is displayed by the Pardoner and a character inhis tale is hypocrisy. Although the Pardoner is extremely greedy, he continuesto try and teach that Avarice is the root of all evil (6). Thecharacters in his tale display great hypocrisy as well. As the tale begins, thefriends all act very trustworthy and faithful towards all of their friends. Theynobly make a decision to risk their lives while trying to slay their friendsmurderer. As they talk about their challenge, they pledge to live and dieeach of them for the other, / As if he were his own blood brother(241-242). At the end of the tale, the brothers begin to revealtheir true nature. They all turn on each other in an attempt to steal thetreasure for themselves. All of the loyalty, which they had pledged, was simplya lie and no faithfulness remained. While the two older brotherplotted to kill the younger, the younger brother plotted tokill them both and never to repent (388). Thus, these so-called faithfulbrothers display their true ruthlessness and reveal their hypocrisyin relation to the Pardoners character. The characters in the PardonersTale match the unctuous nature of the Pardoner in a great deal of ways. All of these traits and ideas that are seen in both the Pardoner and the talethat he tells show a strong relationship in the two. Chaucer used this techniquein all of the tales that are recorded in Canterbury Tales. This technique givesa greater insight into the mind of the teller. By analyzing the tales, it ispossible to learn much about the teller of the tale. Using this method, Chaucerfocuses on the characteristics of each of the people involved in CanterburyTales, but also keeps the poem interesting. Book Reports

The Bebop Jazz Essay Sample free essay sample

Abstraction Bebop Jazz is considered a fad in 1945. Its tune attracted tonss of music lovers. It has fast beat and it is more complicated compared to a swing. Blue Monk and How High the Moon are one of its illustrations. The Bebop Jazz started in 1940 and evolved into a trend by 1945. It was the vanguard of wind. Unlike classical wind. little groups chiefly played it. Two horns. including cornet and saxophone. and rhythm instruments are Bebop’s important composing. Bebop progressed from Jam Sessions. an informal. insouciant and non-rehearsed group of instrumentalists. It was besides considered as an art signifier so Bebop instrumentalists called themselves creative persons. It was a nonstop development of blues patterned advance. Bebop music has fast beat ( although it can be played at any pacing ) but it needed a lighter attack. Its tunes are intricate and complex. Charlie Parker. Bud Powell. Lucky Thompson. Dizzy Gillespie. Kenny Dorham. We will write a custom essay sample on The Bebop Jazz Essay Sample or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Ella Fitzgerald. and Thelonious Monk are among the celebrated creative persons of Bebop Jazz. Two of the Bebop wind that I’d heard are the Blue Monk of Thelonious Monk and the How High the Moon of Fitzgerald. The Blue Monk has chromatic. blues. pentatonic and melodious minor graduated tables. It employs two chief topics. one that advances and one that reiterate in a displaced manner. Fitzgerald’s How High the Moon is uses scats singing. and dramatic pacing alteration. The graduated tables used are major. blues. pentatonic. and melodious child. Both of the composings have fast beat. Mention Manners of Jazz Music. ( 2008 ) . A Passion for Jazz. Retrieved 07 May. 2008 from hypertext transfer protocol: //www. apassion4jazz. net/jazz_styles. hypertext markup language.

What difference does knowledge of the Argonautica Essay Example

What difference does knowledge of the Argonautica Essay What difference does knowledge of the Argonautica by Apollonius Rhodius make to the reading of the Aeneid by Vergil? Introduction The thematic and structural relationship between theArgonauticaand theAeneidhas been a fertile land for the publication of important academic commentary. On the strictly actual degree, the proposition contained in the rubric to this paper can be answered in a simple and instead emphasized negative. TheAeneidcan be read as a freestanding heroic poem work without restriction or via media ; a cognition or acquaintance with theArgonautica( or theIliad, as is besides discussed in academic circles ) is non required to either understand or to appreciate the narration of theAeneid. TheAeneidcan be read for both pleasance and aim without mention to any external beginnings, including theArgonautica. We will write a custom essay sample on What difference does knowledge of the Argonautica specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on What difference does knowledge of the Argonautica specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on What difference does knowledge of the Argonautica specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer This paper will research the proposition that a sensible cognition of theArgonauticapermits theAeneidreader to see a deepness of comprehension and a fuller grasp of the historical context and related mentions, construction, and literary devices employed by Vergil. For a authoritative bookman such as Richard Hunter, theArgonauticahas been declared indispensable to formation of theAeneid[ 1 ],rendering a survey of theArgonauticaan imperative as opposed to an option. This paper will research each of these distinguishable positions to progress a thesis that flows of course from the rubric – the reading of theAeneidis made more complete if cognition of theArgonauticais a tool available to the reader. In the undermentioned analysis, the termcognitionis given a wide application. Knowledge will be discussed non merely as that fluxing from the survey available within the boundaries of theArgonauticatext, but besides that information refering the history of Apollonius, his cultural environment, and the beginnings and assorted other renditions of the myth of the Golden Fleece that predate theArgonautica. All cognition of theArgonauticain both these direct and indirect agencies provides an sweetening of the grasp of theAeneidthat is will necessarily take to the fullest possible apprehension of the relationship between these plants. Individual transitions from both theAeneidand theArgonauticaare referenced in this paper where necessary to spread out upon any point that is sought to be advanced ; nevertheless, the push of this reappraisal is non to declaim or to name in drumhead signifier isolated poetries from either work, but to supply a wide analysis that identifies the important points necessary to understand the relationship between theArgonauticaand theAeneid. The Origins of theArgonautica At the clip that Apollonius composed theArgonauticacirca 250 BC [ 2 ] , the fable of Jason and his Argonauts was one rooted in antiquity. The Argonaut fable is referenced in both theOdysseyand theIliad[ 3 ] ; it is apparent that the myth exerted a considerable literary influence for several hundred old ages prior to the authorship of Apollonius [ 4 ] , an influence that peculiarly continued with regard to the coevals of Hellenistic authors of which he was a portion ( 323 BC to 31 BC ) . Apollonius lived and wrote in the metropolis of Alexandria during its most dynamic and culturally centred period. Art, scientific discipline and assorted scholarly chases were encouraged in the booming metropolis. The rational pulsation of Alexandria was directed by its fantastic library, a installation said to possess over 200,000 axial rotations of paperss. [ 5 ] TheArgonautica A drawn-out scrutiny of the narration of theArgonauticais unneeded for the intents of this paper ; a brief sum-up will help in following the analytical points made farther in this reappraisal. TheArgonauticais founded on a well known narrative from Grecian mythology. The full heroic poem has a figure of distinguishable constituents. It is testament to the presumed acquaintance of the myth with his intended audience that Apollonius maintains a really brief debut to his heroic poem ; Apollonius must be assumed to hold understood that a drawn-out thesis about the beginnings of Jason and his pursuit for the Golden Fleece were unneeded for his audience [ 6 ] . The first part of the Argonautica describes the beginnings of the Golden Fleece from the random-access memory of Helle and Praxius. Zeus finally took charge of the Fleece and placed the Fleece under the guard of a firedrake. Mugwump of the actions taken in relation to the Golden Fleece, King Pelias of Iolcus heeds a warning made by an prophet that he must mind the reaching of a adult male have oning one sandal. Jason’s reaching before Pelias appeared to carry through the prophesy and Pelias manoeuvred Jason into the premise of a pursuit to seek the Golden Fleece. Apollonius intervention of the myth of Jason and the Argonauts – a drumhead Apollonius takes the ancient Argonaut myth and expands it to encompass a figure of wide subjects that are developed in the class of the ocean trip of Jason and his crew. The cardinal subjects in this respect are: love ( of which the actions described in the narrative refering the island of Lemnos is a outstanding illustration ) the over arced impression of the quest making friendly relationships and contrasting illustrations of the maltreatment and misdemeanor of friendly relationship the regard and related fright of Zeus and the lesser Gods, tempered by illustrations of humanity among the Gods ( noted below ) the apparently random nature of the events that affected Jason and his crew throughout their ocean trip Against these wide and of all time present subjects Apollonius draws his heroic poem hero, Jason. The mode in which Jason is portrayed through the class of theArgonauticais deeply of import to any comrade reading of theAeneid. In Jason, Apollonius renders a character that would be recognised in modern literature as ananti-heroor protagonist every bit much as they would be identified as a classical hero ; Jason is likely one of the first literary creative activities in known history to be developed in such a manner. The mode in which Jason is depicted throughout the Argonautica resonates in the ulterior creative activity of Vergil’s Aeneas. Jason may de defined in modern footings as an anti-hero through a close scrutiny of his personality and his behavior. He begins the ocean trip with the Argonauts in a place of undoubted leading. He is shortly revealed as the antithesis to the resolute epic leader ; at assorted points his leading boundary lines on the drifting and the ineffective. At other occasions in the ocean trip he is accused of cowardliness. Jason and his assorted romantic relationships including those on the island of Lemnos support a decision that Jason was flawed in his moral mentality. He appears at a figure of points in the narrative to be both down ( such as his reaching at Colchis, as he prepared to retrieve the Golden Fleece ) and spiritually isolated from his crew. [ 7 ] There are few modern-day comparings to the mode in which Apollonius portrays Jason. The traditional Greek literary hero to that clip had been an incarnation of many superior virtuousnesss. In heroic poems written prior to theArgonautica, the hero was constantly a tall, good formed adult male of baronial bearing and demeanor. Such characters were a popular stereotype – the athletic and brave leader of work forces that was closer to god than mortal, a vanquisher of every challenge they of all time faced. An grasp of Jason as a classical precursor to the anti-hero theoretical account aids in the development of a comrade apprehension of theAeneid. Aeneas is a epic character who is besides flawed and one whom Vergil wishes his audience to accept as obviously human. Another going from the earlier authoritative illustrations of the heroic poem manner was the mode in which the Gods were portrayed in theArgonautica. The over siting respect for the powers of the Gods who involved themselves at any clip with the mortal universe in theArgonauticawas one of fright, but at assorted times Apollonius imbues the Gods with plainly human and less awful features. A compelling illustration of this touch of mortality in the Gods was the attempt made by Athena and Hera to seek out the goddess Aphrodite to set up for Medea to fall in love with Jason. [ 8 ] Academic observers have characterized the word picture of the scheming of theseArgonauticaimmortals, in contrast to the reverent intervention of the Gods by Homer, as a puting similar in its tone to one that Apollonius might hold described if he were detecting a group of ladies in waiting at an 18th century European royal family. [ 9 ] Important literary characteristics of theArgonautica A unequivocal listing of every illustration of the literary devices and techniques that set apart theArgonauticafrom what had passed before in the history of Grecian literature, with a corresponding recitation of how each bears an of import relationship to theAeneid, would probably function to render the chief points of this analysis excessively diffuse. However, a figure of illustrations may be highlighted to exemplify how Vergil used assorted characteristics from theArgonauticato to the full develop the Aeneid [ 10 ] . These characteristics include: ( I ) the focal point of Apollonius upon erotism ( two ) the fluctuation in the tone and the usage of the first individual remarkable employed at points throughout the work ( three ) the usage of allusion aiton, the usage of a brief account incorporated into the flow of the narrative sing a peculiar facet of the larger narrative and narrative assorted pragmatism techniques the sense of purpose present in each hero ; both Jason and Aeneas are end driven and for the most portion absorbed in their several pursuits Defects of theArgonauticathat impact upon its consideration sing the Aeneid As obliging a rendition of the ancient Grecian myths as theArgonauticaconveys, the Apollonius heroic poem has been subjected to important unfavorable judgment both with regard to its content and its building. These critical observations possibly summarized as follows: TheArgonauticais an imbalanced work that lacks all right building ; events are sometimes described in one transition and the undermentioned narrative transition apparently unfolds in a distant topographic point, ensuing in spreads in the narrative [ 11 ] TheArgonauticais a narrative that unfolds over a series of long narrative transitions that describe episodes that are non ever neatly connected to one another in the true heroic poem manner [ 12 ] TheArgonauticaand Vergil in a historical context Born in 70 BC, Vergil wrote the Aeneid in the wake of the most disruptive period of Roman history to that clip. In the old ages taking up to the creative activity and the completion of the Aeneid, the Roman province had sustained the civil war of Caesar versus Pompey, and the results of the conflicts of Philippi and Actium ( 31 BC ) . There is no inquiry that by clip of theAeneid, theArgonauticawas a well regarded and widely available beginning of both inspiration and text stuff for Vergil. With mention to theArgonauticawritten over 200 old ages earlier, theAeneidinvokes three distinguishable modern-day literary traditions, viz. : the intended public usage of the work ; the heroic poem was created as a public statement the mythology of the long and involved heroic poem the dry tradition of the heroic poems of the Alexandrian period ( including theArgonautica) [ 13 ] While he draws upon a different and Trojan centred mythology, Vergil like Apollonius reaches deep into his available recorded history to show theAeneid. Aeneas had foremost been described as a epic figure in the earlier Grecian plants in the 5th century BC. Important manner and content similarities between theArgonauticaand theAeneid There are legion scholarly interventions of theArgonauticaand theAeneidthat circumstantially analyse each work for similarities. A figure of of import general relationships must be understood to appreciate the influence of theArgonauticaupon Vergil [ 14 ] . Like Apollonius, Vergil is non a slave to literary convention. The usage of the explanatoryaitonis an illustration common to both. In general footings, each heroic poem succeeds in avoiding predictable and formulistic narrative relation. Each author had exposure to profound and immediate cultural influences. For Vergil, it was the late ended series of civil wars. Apollonius wrote in the influential domain of Callimachus, librarian and custodian of the great library of Alexander. Both heroic poems are uncomplete ; theArgonauticaterminals at the 8th book of the heroic poem and the narration is clearly capable of being extended. TheAeneidhas gaps in its construction that confirm that it was non finished at the clip of Vergil’s decease. Each of the heroic poem heroes is directed to fulfill a end ( the pursuit for the Golden Fleece, the conflict to make Italy and set up domination over the state ) Although the several narrations are non complete or are otherwise missing from a literary position, both heroic poems convey a sense of completeness on the several parts of their heroes ; each accomplishes the aim that they were tasked to seek throughout the narrative. At assorted points in both theAeneidand theArgonautica, the reader can clearly feel the rules of rapprochement, peace and forgiveness that transpire as a portion of the securing of the larger nonsubjective [ 15 ] . The relationship between Jason and Medea as depicted by Apollonius is reworked into the Aeneid in the signifier of the love affair between Aeneas and Queen Dido. While Vergil alters the nature of the love matter, the sense of what transpired on the island of Lemnos is revived in theAeneid. Decision As noted in the Introduction, cognition of theArgonauticais non indispensable to the reading of theAeneid. It is suggested that the powerful linkages between the two plants, in affairs of historical mentions, literary construction and the portraiture of its heroes that theArgonauticais a extremely desirable requirement survey to procure an optimum apprehension of theAeneid. The relationship between the two plants is non symbiotic but one where theArgonauticaexerts significance influence upon the ulterior work [ 16 ] . One may reason that Homer continued to exercise a greater influence upon Vergil than did Apollonius. Such would be the topic for a ulterior paper. Bibliography Beye, C.R. and John Gardner,Epic and Romance in the Argonautica of Apollonius. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1982 Beye, C.R. Vergil and Apollonius. In: Christine Perkell.Reading Vergil s Aeneid: An Interpretive Guide.1999 Beye, C.R.Ancient Epic Poetry: Homer, Apollonius, Virgil. 1993 Boardman, J. et Al ( ed. )Oxford History of Greece and the Hellenistic World Oxford, 1991 Knox, Bernard ( ed. )Norton Anthology of Classic LiteratureNew York: 1993 Nelis, D.P.Vergil s Aeneid and the Argonautica of Apollonius Rhodius. Leeds: Francis Cairns, 2001 Putnam, MichaelC. J. Virgil s Aeneid: Interpretation and Influence. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1995. Rhodius, ApolloniusJason and the Golden Fleece: The Argonautica.Translated by Richard A. Hunter. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995. Toohey, Peter. Reading Epic poem: An Introduction to the Ancient Narratives. New York: Routledge, 1992 Wallace, Andrew. Placement, Gender, and Pedagogy: Virgil s Fourth Georgic in Print. Renaissance Quarterly 56.2 ( 2003 ) : 377 1

Imagery(or motifs)in William Shakespeares Hamlet

Imagery(or motifs)in William Shakespeares Hamlet In Hamlet, imagery of disease, poison and decay, are used by William Shakespeare for many purposes. Marcellus' line in Act I illustrates the use of this imagery very well, "Something is rotten in the state of Denmark." Corruption is rampant, like a contagious disease infecting the court. The atmosphere of disease serves to heighten the audience's disgust for the events that are taking place in the play. Secondly, disease leads to death, so the diseased society of Denmark is doomed. Because of this sense of doom, there is a slight foreshadowing of the play's tragic ending. The tragic atmosphere is enhanced by the motif of disease and decay. These descriptions of disease, poison, and decay help us to understand the bitter relationships, the anxious, chaotic atmosphere, and also the emotional and moral decay of the characters existing in the play.The image of decay is first used at the end of Act I to help comprehend the depression Hamlet feels in his first soliloquy about suicide.Rosen crantz and GuildensternWhen Hamlet releases the words "O that this too sullied flesh would melt, thaw, and resolve itself into a dew," (I.ii, 129-130) he communicates how he wishes to not exist in this world anymore. An image of Hamlet's flesh rotting and combining with the soil is produced. At this moment, Hamlet's true emotions liberate, and his pain and his yearn for death can be felt. Hamlet continues to say "How weary, stale, flat, and unprofitable seem to me all the uses of this world! Fie on't, ah, fie, 'tis an unweeded garden that grows to seed. Things rank and gross in nature possess it merely."(I.ii, 133-137) Here, Hamlet feels that the world around him is useless and in constant chaos. By creating these vivid images of death and decay, Shakespeare lets us peer into...

GDP per Capita and Its Challengers Research Proposal

GDP per Capita and Its Challengers - Research Proposal Example First of all, it should be noted that GDP was not designed to evaluate the well-being of a country. Instead, it measures particular types of economic activities within the country, which does not necessarily refer to a standard of living. For one crude example, a country with all goods and services exported will have a high GDP but low well-being of its citizens. Second, GDP takes into account only documented operations. It does include neither black market nor non-monetary operations, like bartering, showing inaccurate information for countries where any of these issues plays an important role. Moreover, some companies commit a cross-border trade within themselves in order to escape high taxation - this distorts GDP, creating additional imports/exports data. Third, GDP indicator shows little information for changes in ecology, society, and lifestyle. For instance, ecological damage is treated by GDP as a double growth: at first, it counts natural resources retrieved, and then it counts services used to replenish natural resources, but it would be far better if the disaster had never occurred in the first place. Additionally, the philosophy of GDP shows wars as contributors to the economy, but child upbringing and housework as valueless actions. It ignores volunteer and unpaid work, but instead, GDP counts work that produces no net change or that results from repairing harm (e.g. the healthcare industry, where economic activity increases along with a number of unhealthy population). Fourth, people buy often low-durability goods and make rare purchases of high-durable products, because of their long use. Sometimes it is possible that the monetary value of the items sold in the first case is higher than that in the second case, in which case a higher GDP is simply the result of greater inefficiency and waste. Fifth, since GDP does count financial purchases as investments, then if a nation does not spend, but saves and invests overseas, its GDP will be diminished in comparison to one that spends borrowed money. Therefore, accumulated savings and debt are not taken into account so long as adequate financing continues. Sixth, sometimes different calculations of GDP confuse each other. There are two different types GDP calculation for cross-border comparison: current currency exchange rate, where GDP is calculated by exchange rates prevailing on international currency markets) and purchasing power parity (PPP) exchange rate, where GDP is calculated by PPP of each currency relative to a selected standard.  

International Youth Forum Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

International Youth Forum - Term Paper Example We are expecting to have an average of 800 audiences per day. The charges for the tickets will be collected on the days of the show. The speakers have agreed to receive 50 percent of their fees right after the programme and the remaining after 45 days. The speakers are professionals and some of them are from different parts of the world. Their fee varies from 3,200 to 6,800 per day. The artists belong to a single agency that has agreed to charge a lump sum fee for the entire programme. The agency promotes art derived from various cultures in the world. Due to the close connection between our motives, it has agreed to provide us a discount. A local restaurant owner has volunteered to take care of the brunch arrangements. He has provided an estimation of 14.55 per plate. The payment for the brunch will partly be paid after 30 days of the programme. A situation where the actual income would be less than the expected income by more than twenty five percent has been considered. In such a situation, the Foundation can recover the difference by conducting a Fund Raising Show. The artists' agency that has agreed to perform in the Forum has also volunteered to work hand-in-hand with the Foundation in the future. The Foundation also intends to encourage the youngsters participating in the Forum to promote the Foundation's activities in their countries. This step is expect

Write about three job's you have chosen Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Write about three job's you have chosen - Essay Example usiness, project costs are estimated to be billions of dollars and projects fail, costing billions of dollars, if project managers and their respective teams do not have enough coordination and cooperation. The project manager must not fail as a team manager and leader. Project success and project management success are two different things. Project success refers to the success of the overall objectives of the project while project management success refers to the performance of the team under the leadership and management of the team leader and project manager. The project has to be completed and must meet the specified time, cost, and scope and quality of the project according to the specifications of the contract between the contractor and the client. It is important to differentiate here the difference between management and leadership. Management emphasizes functions such as planning, organizing, and controlling. Management is concerned with providing decisions about processes and functions in order to improve operational efficiency and effectiveness. Leadership role of the manager refers to providing motivations and guidance to realize people’s potential and to achieve tougher and challenging organizational roles. (Anantatmula 14) Site project coordinator performs the function between project administrator and technical assistants, but is also in charge of locating, planning, coordinating, analyzing and understanding of organization. In other words, the project coordinator’s role is also complex as in the project manager. Project coordinators must have an effective relationship with the client, consultant and contractor. He must have qualities like working on time, technical knowledge of the project, team-playing attributes, and coordination skills in achieving quality for the project. A project coordinator works under limited authority and must earn the trust and confidence of the team in order to achieve various tasks at his/her disposal. A

Why are some children more successful as learners than others

Why are some children more successful as learners than others Before considering how children learn in a variety of ways it is important to establish how successful learning is defined for the context of this essay. Rigby et al (1992) broadly construed that learning refers to a life-long process in which organisms make contact with and assimilate their environment. However, it is important to relate specific types of learning to the theories of motivation, as the effects of motivation will impact differently on different types of learners. This dependent variable (learning) is directly influenced by the independent variables (type of motivation), so it is important to acknowledge the significance of learning within literature. Deci et al (1991) acknowledged that the central features of optimal learning are conceptual understanding and the flexible use of knowledge. Deci et al (1991) summarised this theory by stipulating, the learning outcomes stressed are understood both in the relations among facts and the ways to find or generate facts. My in terpretation of this theory is that it allows the learner to have an understanding of the outcome and processes that were used to find that outcome. Deci et al (1991) believe the strength of this theory lies in the recognition that the acquisition and retention of facts are not enough to promote successful learning. Another factor to consider, for the context of the essay, is that children learn in a variety of different ways. The deep learning approach describes active engagement with the content, leading to extensive elaboration of the learning material, whilst seeking personal understanding. In contrast, the surface approach indicates the use of routine memorisation to reproduce aspects of the subject matter expected to be assessed (Entwistle, 2001). There is a general acceptance that the manner in which individuals choose or are inclined to approach a learning situation has an impact on performance and achievement of learning outcomes (Cassidy, 2004). My interpretation of Cassidys research is that one learning style will not be more successful than another, but, consequently, it is imperative for teachers to approach a learning style that suits the individuals in that class in order to engage them in the process of learning. Learning needs to be personalised for all children so they can achi eve their educational potential. If personalised learning is not accomplished, not every child in the class would achieve the same success in their learning. It is also important to recognise the effect that the learning environment has on the success of children and how this can be manipulated to create a positive experience for them. Reeve (2006) recognised that students can be curious, proactive and highly engaged or they can be alienated, reactive and passive. Just how engaged students are depends on the quality of classroom conditions. In school settings, engagement is important because it functions as a behavioural pathway by which students motivational processes contribute to their subsequent learning and development (Reeve et al, 1991). Therefore, it is important that an effective learning environment is created to enhance childrens motivation and, in turn, increase their learning success. However, opposing this, Taylor, Ntoumanis and Smith (2009) recognise the peripheral position of P.E. means that P.E. teachers work in very different occupational environments in comparison to teachers in core subjects. It is important to manipul ate the environment to suit the subject being taught therefore enhancing learning. I believe the majority of children respond positively to the P.E. environment, as it is a different setting to the classroom. As a direct influence of my experience as a student and a teacher I, believe that a positive correlation needs to be created between the learning environment and the learning style of the students so that successful learning can be created. I also believe this makes a teachers job particularly difficult nowadays because there are so many independent variables that need to be considered so that learners can achieve their maximum learning potential. Hardre et al (2006) recognised that the interaction of teaching and learning results from complex dynamics of multiple structures and characteristics. This places particular emphasis on the teachers motivation to understand these characteristics. Teachers motivation appears crucial for optimal human functioning in the work place because teachers who are highly motivated are more engaged in their work and more satisfied (Fernet et al, 2008). Furthermore, Fernet et al (2008) state that a teachers motivation is directly linked to their student s motivation. The overall aim of this essay is to reflect on the importance of motivation in relation to Self-Determination Theory (SDT). It is important to declare that other theories of motivation are signified for educational settings, but this theory will be used to make links between types of motivation and successful learners. SDT (Deci Ryan, 1985) distinguishes between different types of motivation based on the different reasons or goals that give rise to an action. A person who feels no impetus or inspiration to act is characterised as unmotivated, whereas someone who is energized or activated toward an end is considered motivated (Ryan Deci, 2000). Ryan Deci (2000) declare that the most basic distinction is between intrinsic motivation, which refers to doing something because it is inherently interesting or enjoyable, and extrinsic motivation, which refers to doing something because it leads to a separable outcome (Ryan Deci, 2000). SDT, when applied to the realm of education, is concerned primarily with promoting in students an interest in learning, the value of education, a confidence in their capacities and attributes (Deci et al 1991). SDT is one of the most widely used theoretical frameworks to study motivation in P.E, which is not surprising given that its major propositions and constructs are highly relevant to P.E. (Ntoumanis and Standage, 2009). To conclude, previous research in this area is imperative to determine which method of motivation creates the most successful learner. SDT assumes that inherent in human nature is the propensity to be curious about ones environment and to be interested in learning and developing ones knowledge (Niemiec Ryan, 2009). Even though this theory can be applied to an educational setting, can it be assumed that students would still go to school if they have a choice of attending? Would children be curious about this type of environment and the processes that occur there if they didnt have an obligation to attend school? Deci, Ryan and Williams (1996) recognise that for an action to be considered fully self-regulated, people must experience a sense of volition and a sense of unpressured willingness to engage in the action. However, by law, all children of compulsory school age, between 5 and 16, must receive a proper full-time education. Parents are responsible for making this happen, either by registering the child at school or by making other arrangements which provide an effective education (Department for Education, 2010 ). After taking into consideration the legal requirements (external factor) that ensure children attend school, it is important to discuss whether they exhibit intrinsic or extrisic motivation within school. Intrinsic Motivation Intrinsic motivation can be classed as behaviour which is accepted in the absence of external impetus and that is inherently interesting and enjoyable (Ryan Deci, 2000). Vansteenkiste, Soenens Lens (2009) suggests it is important to apply realistic and meaningful intrinsic goals to the learning activity so that children accept the promoted goal. This theory has been supported by Katz Assor (2006) who state that options should be constructed that are relevant to childrens interests, aimed at their level of ability and are congruent with their values. It is important to recognise what effect this has on the success of learning and Gronlick Ryan (1987) found that elementary school children, who reported more autonomous motivation for doing schoolwork, in general, showed greater conceptual learning and better memory than children who reported less autonomous motivation. This is an important factor as conceptual learning is directly related to the definition of success learning used i n this essay. I would argue that it is difficult to achieve this throughout the curriculum as the learning is always facilitated towards assessment. Several studies have supported this by demonstrating that under certain conditions extrinsic rewards can enhance intrinsic motivation (Ryan, Mims Koestner, 1983). I dont believe that all students would be able to disengage from the fact that they are always being assessed, whether it is formative or summative methods, and perform based on intrinsic feelings alone. In conjunction with this, I dont believe it is physically possible for teachers to facilitate a learning environment that will enable all students to be working towards their maximum learning potential as there are too many learning variables to manipulate at one time. Extrinsic Motivation It is important to recognise that intrinsic motivation, as discussed above, is not the only form of motivation which students can demonstrate in an educational setting. Pupils can also be motivated by extrinsic factors which lead to a separate outcome. Deci Ryan (2010) recognised that extrinsic motivation is used to motivate students on tasks and lessons that are important but not necessarily intrinsically interesting. Niemiec Ryan (2009) suggest that all too often educators introduce external controls into the learning climate, which can undermine the relationship between teachers and students and also stifle the natural process involved in high quality learning. However, I think it is impossible to achieve the natural process of learning consistently and this method of motivation can be used regularly and effectively, to enhance learning in the long term. When pupils are amotivated, extrinsic motivation can be used to ensure that they are engaging in the teaching and learning pro cess. Fortier, Vallerand and Guay (1995) support this argument by stating that extrinsic motivation can be used as a means to an end, therefore, if autonomy is not present then it be used as a method of increasing successful learning. Types of Extrinsic Motivation In SDT, an analysis of extrinsic motivation revolves around the developmental process of internalization (Rigby et al. 1992). Internalization is the process of taking in a value or a regulation and it describes how motivation for behaviour can range from amotivation, to passive compliance, to active personal commitment (Deci Ryan, 2000). It is through the process of internalization that extrinsic motivation enables self-determined engagement during important but uninteresting endeavours (Deci Ryan, 2010). Therefore, it is vital to recognise its importance in an educational setting and its effect on the success of learning, as there are many activities in school which students find boring or uninteresting. It is important to recognise that SDT lists three types of extrinsic motivation and each type of motivation varies in how self-determined and internalized it is (Deci Ryan, 1991). External Regulation Deci Ryan (1991) recognise that in the real world of the classroom extrinsic motivation is an important method of engaging students on tasks and lessons. External regulation motivation arises from and is dependent on the presence of environmental events such as rewards, pressures and constraints (Deci Ryan, 2010). External regulation is focused on the outcome of tasks such as assessment and grades in an educational setting. This method is not self-determined and lies on one end of the self-determination continuum. I would argue that this method of motivation is used throughout the school curriculum as children are continually assessed through formative and summative methods. When applied to core P.E. it is important to realise that students are still graded on their ability and knowledge at the end of a unit of work. However, it is important not to use this method of motivation all of the time or it will lose its value. SDT explains that autonomously supported students thrive, and it explains why students thrive when the teacher supports their autonomy (Deci Ryan, 2010). I think that there needs to be a balance between the two dichotomies and external regulation should be used during more arduous tasks and when the children are amotivated. Therefore, a more autonomous approach should be used during tasks and lessons that are more likely to engage the students. Finding a balance between these two dichotomies and utilising them efficiently would help to increase students learning success. Introjected Regulation Deci Ryan (2010) suggest that the internalized demands of a teacher or parent actually regulate the students behaviour, which leads to the reasoning behind introjected regulation (representing the first phase of the internalization process). When parents are controlling they value obedience and conformity in their children (Grolnick Ryan, 1989). I believe this type of motivation is what is needed for some students because they are able to engage more in lessons if they are supervised closely and behave to an ideal standard. I have found this method to be successful with more troublesome children as it acts as a deterrent for misbehaviour and they seek positive feedback from their parents. On the other hand, there is some evidence that, in some instances, high levels of controlling involvement may actually be less beneficial than lower levels of involvement (Weiss Grolnick, 1991). Thus well-meaning parents may become easily focused on exam results, pressurising their children and u ndermining the very characteristics they wish to inculcate (Deci Ryan, 2010). To conclude, introjected regulation motivation is implemented into school and P.E. in particular. There is regular contact between parents and teachers through phone calls, planners and reports. I would argue that this method of motivation works well for some students and less so for others. It is very much dependent on the individual as to whether this method is successful. Identified Regulation Identified regulation is where the student accepts the merits of a belief or behaviour because he or she sees its importance or personal utility (Deci Ryan, 2010). Identified regulation is the most self-determined of the extrinsic approaches and students use this method as they accept the merits of a belief. (Deci Ryan, 2010). This theory has been supported by Dweck Elliott (1983) as they state that children who hold learning goals are concerned with increasing their competence, so their goal is to acquire new skills or extend their mastery. I have observed teachers who use this method to promote reasoning behind certain tasks when students dont envisage it as valuable to their needs. Once the reasoning behind the work has been given the students accept that the work is of value to their learning. On the other hand, I dont believe this method can be used all the time, as some students do not see education as a valuable necessity within their life. There are some students who alrea dy have a job guaranteed for them before leaving school so an education is not of any value to them. In this instance, learning is not successful as the students are amotivated to participate in the lesson. This leads on to how teachers use these different methods to motivate students. Intrinsic Teacher Classroom practices that support students satisfaction of autonomy, competence and relatedness are associated with greater intrinsic motivation (Niemiec Ryan, 2009). This theory is embraced by other researchers who recognise that a teaching style which provides students with opportunities to makes choices appears to have a positive effect on their intrinsic motivation (Biddle et al, 1995). Williams and Deci (1997) concluded that autonomy supportive educators improve conceptual learning and psychological adjustment in medical students. It also links into the definition of successful learning which is being used for the context of this essay. This review, however, was only done on a small scale and, therefore, does not indicate whether this method of teaching is the most effective for a wide range of students. Furthermore, a lot of the research was conducted in a laboratory, which doesnt necessarily reflect real life experiences in education. On the other hand, it could be argued that in a more realistic environment there are too many other factors that need to be taken into consideration when researching the effect of motivation and learning. Ryan Neimiec (2009) summarise this point by clarifying that there is resistance from quantitive methods, reflecting the hegenomous forces entrenched in societies, or that the scientific method ultimately reduces humans to mere objects in casual chains. Therefore, how is it possible to measure the success of learning when it is impossible to isolate motivation as the only factor that influences a childs education? Extrinsic Teacher Studies have shown that if teachers feel responsible for student performance standards then they are more controlling towards students and less affective in their teaching (Flink, Boggiano Barrett, 1990). One reason why teachers use controlling, rather than autonomy-supportive strategies in the classroom is because external pressures are placed on them (Niemiec Ryan, 2009). With a lot of focus being placed on assessment and targets within school, I feel there has been as shift away from the quality of the teaching occurring. This is supported by Wild, Enzle and Hawkins (1992) who state that an externally constrained teacher imposes lessons on a dependent and constrained learner and, therefore, there are threats to the personal autonomy of both parties. I believe this minimises the enjoyment of the lessons from the students perspective and because they are not intrinsically motivated an alternate method must be used to increase learning success. Deci et al. (2001) explains that beca use many of the tasks educators want their students to perform are not inherently interesting or enjoyable, knowing how to promote more active forms of extrinsic motivation becomes an essential strategy for successful teaching. Intrinsic P.E Enhancing students motivation is an important objective in physical education for a teacher as it has been linked to exercise participation outside of school and future intentions to exercise (Standage, Duda Ntoumanis, 2003). Duda Nicholls (1992) supported this theory by stating that participation in many sports and physical activities can lead to feelings of autonomy and competence and may produce joy, excitement, thrills and other satisfying emotions. It is therefore easy to see why physical activities may be inherently intrinsically motivating. I would argue that the use of this statement is too broad; even though a vast majority of pupils do enjoy physical education, they do not enjoy all of the activities provided by the P.E. curriculum. In my personal experience, specifically from my diagnostic placement, I found that the vast majority of boys enjoyed participating in football. On the other hand, when activities such as rugby and dance are included on their timetable, they di d not demonstrate the same amount of motivation and enthusiasm. Consequently, Ferrer-Caja Weiss (2000) found it would be appropriate to examine the model of intrinsic motivation among students taking physical education as an elective class to gain insight into motivational attitudes and behaviours in physical education. Again, this would require isolating motivation as the only variable to effect the success of learning. Extrinsic P.E. Although most pupils are intrinsically motivated to participate in P.E. lessons, there are many children who are extrinsically motivated or lack motivation to participate (Ntoumanis, 2001). Extrinsic motivation can be used as an effective method of engaging students in a P.E. lesson if they do not feel intrinsically motivated to learn. It is important to take into consideration the activity that the students are participating in. A study by Fredrick Ryan (1993) determining motivation levels between fitness activity participants (high appearance motivation) and individual sport participants (low appearance motivation), showed that individual sports participants tended to have higher levels of self-determination towards the activity. Deci Ryan (2010) support this by stating that extrinsic motivation is expected to relate to lower levels of positive effect, less self-reported satisfaction and competence and lower reports of adherence activity. The issues that arise from the study of F redrick Ryan (1993) are that the sample group was quite narrow with 376 participants taking part. Also, the research used an adult cohort, rather than children, so the question has to be asked, would this theory of motivation still apply to an educational setting? From a personal experience as a student, I found that the use of extrinsic rewards only served to motivate me more in lessons. During my teaching practice, I used extrinsic rewards during invasion games lessons and there was a clear increase in the levels of motivation from students. However, I felt that this extra motivation took the focus away from the learning objectives and towards the extrinsic rewards, which had a direct effect on the success of learning in the lesson. Extracurricular clubs It is important to discuss the effect of extra-curricular clubs in school and particularly P.E. on the continued success of students. It can be argued that students do no need to attend these clubs, therefore, are they intrinsically motivated if they attend? Although these clubs are not considered compulsory, their importance in relation to the success of learning is vital. Extra-curricular clubs can contribute by consolidating learning of the traditional P.E. curriculum, as well as offering opportunities in untraditional activities. Students who attend these clubs are considered to be autonomous because they have a choice whether they want to be there or not. Deci Ryan (2010) recognise that autonomy supported students thrive and this can help to benefit students learning. Taking this into account, their research suggests that when students are given a chance to explore their own agenda it helps to increase engagement. I believe that when pupils are engaged in an activity and they f ind the task enjoyable then the success of their conceptual learning is greater. However, I feel that P.E. is the only extra-curricular club which is not associated with an end outcome such as grades. In general, children attend P.E. clubs because they enjoy the activity, whereas in English, for instance, they generally attend to complete work. Own Experience of P.E (Student) In my own experience, as a student in P.E, I found that I was most engaged in lessons and was learning optimally when the teacher adopted an autonomous approach to the lesson. This coincides with results from research by Niemiec Ryan (2009) which demonstrated that children assigned to autonomy-supportive teachers, relative to those assigned to controlling teachers, reported increased intrinsic motivation, perceived competence and self-esteem over time. I felt that certain teachers gave me a sense of responsibility for my learning and allowed me to make my own informed choices and decisions. This helped to build a relationship between myself and the teacher that enhanced my learning in lessons, as well as increasing my intrinsic motivation. When extrinsic motivation was used it only served to motivate me even more, but I didnt feel this approach was necessary because my autonomy was already present when participating in P.E. lessons. However, I do feel that extrinsic motivation can b e used as an effective method for students who are amotivated towards P.E. when it is used in the correct fashion. Own Experience of P.E (Teacher) From a teaching perspective, I found it difficult to increase motivation during my diagnostic teaching placement. A number of children perceived P.E to have little or no benefit to them in and out of school so they often chose not to bring their kit to lessons. I had particular trouble with a group of lower ability year 10 students, with up to ten students forgetting their kit each lesson. These students demonstrated a form of amotivation and they were neither intrinsically or extrinsically motivated. The generic reason the children gave for not participating was because there was no summative outcome (GCSE grade) at the end of their education. I think this highlights whether students are ever intrinsically motivated in school because the focus is always on results and targets. This reason directed me to try and alter the way I introduced the learning tasks to the students. Niemiec Ryan (2009) support this approach by suggesting the way in which a teacher introduces learning tasks i mpacts on students satisfaction of the basic psychological needs for autonomy and competence, thereby either allowing intrinsic motivation to flourish and deeper learning to occur or thwarting these processes. The method I used was to promote their autonomy by teaching to suit their desired learning style and allowing them to learn through games, as well as using external regulation by pressurising the students with threats of detentions. What do children want to achieve? Throughout this essay links have been made between different types of motivation and the effects they have on the success of learning. Although the success of learning has already been defined for the context of the essay, it is important to discuss what children want to achieve from their learning experience. Are they more concerned about the grade they achieve or about having understanding about key processes and concepts they are taught? Much of the research in the area of motivation recognises that children who demonstrate intrinsic motivation show better conceptual learning (Niemiec Ryan, 2009). Ryan Deci (2000) recognised that intrinsic motivation results in high quality learning and creativity, but it is especially important to detail the factors and forces that engender versus undermine it. Cognitive Evaluation Theory (CET), a sub-theory of SDT, states that events which decrease perceived self-determination (i.e., that lead to a more external perceived locus of causality) w ill undermine intrinsic motivation (Deci, Koestner Ryan, 2001). This theory is the underlying reason to discuss whether children are focused on grades or understanding. Assessment or understanding? At present there is a large focus on schools within the education system to achieve targets, grades and positioning within league tables, rather than focusing on teaching to develop knowledge of key processes and outcomes. With the increased pressure that is placed on teachers and students alike, I feel that this has caused a shift towards teaching to targets method. In turn, this has taken the freedom away from teachers to use their creativity to develop a curriculum to suit the needs of their learners. Ultimately, this has directed the government to develop an initiative for all students to gain 5 A*-C at GCSE including English and Maths. The overall emphasis of assessment has been integrated into the educational system by the use of summative assessment at the end of each term. Even further down the assessment continuum, it is important for students to know what level they are working at within lessons and what learning outcomes they should be achieving by the end of the lesson. I would argue that assessment is an important aspect of the education system, but is not ideal for illustrating the success of learners. I would also suggest that pupils who make more progress in lessons are more successful learners than those who achieve a higher level with minimal effort. Although intrinsic motivation is widely accepted as more beneficial for learning in comparison to extrinsic motivation (Ryan Deci, 2000) with the constraints and pressures that are placed on teachers and students, I feel it is impossible to promote this method, therefore affecting the success of learning. Assessment and P.E. One subject area that can be viewed differently, in terms of educational outcomes, is P.E. Summative assessment does not take place, unless this subject is chosen as a GCSE option, but otherwise there are not as many external factors that can undermine the feelings of intrinsic motivation. My teaching experiences so far have indicated that there is an emphasis on learning outcomes within lessons, but no external locus that can undermine intrinsic motivation. As discussed earlier, this is why I think it is important to promote intrinsic motivation within P.E. lessons as learners may not get the chance to engage this way in other lessons. I think this allows students to increase their conceptual learning and develop life skills, rather than be taught how to pass an exam. If the students have taken away knowledge and skills which they can use in life then I feel that they have been successful with their learning, in comparison to a student who has been taught to pass an exam. On the oth er hand, students who do not like participating in this area of the curriculum will find core P.E. surplus to their requirements as they do not have to pursue a grade. Therefore, there is no external locus to undermine any feelings of intrinsic motivation. However, it is important to motivate these students by other methods to facilitate successful learning. Conclusion In conclusion, this essay has critiqued the effect of different types of motivation, in line with the theory of SDT, on successful learning for children in an educational setting. Particular focus has been placed on the effects of motivation that students adopt, the approach to learning from the teachers and the subject being studied, including strong links to Physical Education. As all children learn in different ways, it is impossible to suggest that one isolated method of motivation helps to create more successful students. Furthermore, it can be argued that different types of motivation are required for the same learner, when they are being taught in different activity areas. This makes the teachers task extremely difficult as different types of motivation need to be utilised to help children reach their educational potential. From a personal perspective, it is important that I am able to utilise different methods of motivation to enhance the success of the students I am responsi ble for. Deci Ryan (2010) recognise that integrating students motivational resources into the school curriculum requires teachers to develop new skills and implement conceptual change. Educational environments contain many independent variables that can contribute to a childs learning and these variables need to be considered when researching the effect of motivation on the success of learning. I dont believe that the research about motivation in an educational setting can be fully endorsed, as it is impossible to isolate motivation as the only factor affecting the success of learning. Finally, I would question whether a child is ever intrinsically motivated in an educational setting due to legal requirements to attend and the focus on assessment within lessons. Are pupils ever intrinsically motivated? (Assessment)